My placement work environment involves working with a multi discipline team that includes psychologists, physiotherapists and occupational therapists, Directors, Operations Managers and Quality and Systems Managers. My role for my placement is an “Intervention Coordinator” that entails assessing client(s) in relation to their lack of motivation and the resultant physical atrophy/unsatisfactory physical rehabilitation post injury. It was quite intimating at first just the fact of having such a limited amount of knowledge and understanding about Acquired Brain Injury. Even though I spent a considerable amount of time studying and researching ABI actually walking in and spending time with staff and clients I was a little overwhelmed. However at the 30 hour mark all is going well the motivation program is complete and has the approval of the senior staff and most importantly the clients are displaying interest in participation in the model. Currently I am putting the finishing touches on the pre and post questionnaires with the psychologist.
Project Overview
The concept is the development of an achievement motivation model that includes strategies and techniques to improve intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in clients. Initial task is to research client’s history, observe and be acquainted with clients to gain a better understanding of current personal situations and attitudes. This information will then be reviewed to identify a specific areas of intervention. Develop a measurement device in consultation with supervisor. Quantifiable outcome measures are to be established, and an intervention program will be developed to assist the clients in achieving superior outcomes in their rehabilitation. Introduce strategies or techniques about improving achievement motivation. The intervention will be implemented over a 90 hours period, at which time the initial assessment will be repeated, and then statistically analysed for significance. Lastly, a report will be developed for the organisation summarising the findings and making recommendations for a continuation and/or expansion of the intervention if appropriate.
Project Model and Strategies
The purpose of this project is to implement a proposed model of achievement motivation applied particularly to clients at Headway Gold Coast with Acquired Brain Injury. The focus is on personal, social and environmental areas that affect motivation. The model is based on understanding the attitudes or beliefs that clients hold about themselves, capabilities and drives or desire to attain an outcome based on personal value. Develop strategies and techniques to gain the outcomes that client’s desire. Each of these variables will be described in more detail, and evidence will be provided to support the contention that each exerts an important influence on motivation to achieve in a rehabilitation environment.
The project objectives have thus far aligned with the work activities however like any psychological assessment the model is consistently evolving. There are more variables that have come into consideration that affect client’s motivation with ABI. In consultation with the staff it has come apparent that the leading cause of client’s lack of motivation is self confidence. To over come this behaviour the model has now been adjusted to include goal setting, understanding self confidence and self efficacy. This has provided the opportunity to undertake more research and planning in the development of the model I am fortune that these attributes have been addressed in my previous psychology courses. The inclusion of these behaviours has not affected the timeline or the completion date. The following is outlining my suggested theories and concepts that are to be included in the model reinforced with empirical evidence that addresses the affecting variables.
Goal setting
One must recognise the fact that it takes only small steps to create amazing changes. The dream will lead the way, but it won’t come in one giant leap. Small steps, carried out each day, will bring one to the desired destination. Arguably the most powerful and in important tool in enhancing motivation are goals. According to Weinberg & Gould (2003) goals are objectives or aims of actions to attain a specific standard of proficiency on a task in a specified time. Goal setting is a powerful tool that must be implemented correctly to improve performance. Goal setting works in improving motivation by directing ones attention to the important elements of the skill being performed, mobilising ones efforts, increasing performers persistence and by fostering the development of new learning experiences (Locke & Latham 1985). To maximise goal effectiveness for the present motivation program the following principles by Locke & Latham (1990) suggested, clients must set appropriate goals, develop goal commitment, evaluate barriers to goal attainment, construct an action plan, obtain feedback, evaluate goal attainment and reinforce goal achievement. Further considerations when goal setting include: setting meaningful goals, place powerful reminders around the home or journal about the goals and desires to maintain momentum, create a specific detailed strategies to achieve goals. Use a timeline this includes not only a deadline but also a time to begin. Without a definite timeline, potentially rewarding and fulfilling goals may silently slip away until they become only distant memories. List self motivators for achieving goals: extrinsic, intrinsic and other personal reasons. Develop realistic expectations and maintaining a positive attitude towards goal achievement. Finally review goals, and celebrate accomplishments and provide rewards for achieving goals. Such actions will increase commitment. The goal setting model for the present program will be based on the “Staircase Model” which involves the long term goal or dream at the top, the present level of ability at the lowest step and a sequence of progressively linked, short term goals connecting the top and bottom of the stairs. According to Weinberg & Gould (2003) short and long term goals should be linked. To create a progression of goals the client (s) are recommended to begin with something simple and that will be easily achieved then progress to a series of more immediate short term physical and psychological goals that are linked to the long term goal.
Self-Confidence
Self-confidence is extremely important in almost every aspect of life, yet many struggle to find it. Sadly, this can be a vicious circle: People who lack self-confidence can find it difficult to become successful. Self-confidence can be learned and built on and is often the single ingredient that distinguishes a successful person from someone less successful. The key is having the right amount of confidence. With the appropriate amount of self-confidence, one will take informed risks, attempt, persist and overcome challenges. However self-confidence is about balance when one is under-confident the level of risk taking and effort is reduced if over-confident, one may take too many risks or go beyond ones capabilities. Self confidence is defined as have the belief that one can successfully perform the desired behaviour (Weinberg & Gould 2003). The benefits of self confidence include the arousal of positive emotions, increases concentration and participant’s effort. According to Weinberg & Gould self confident people set more challenging goals and create psychological momentum by viewing negative situations as challenges and react with increased determination. The strategies build self confidence in the current model will begin with managing the mind one must learn to pick up on and defeat the negative self-talk which can destroy confidence. The wrong thoughts played enough times in the mind can reduce the strength of anyone’s confidence. Being conscious of the self talk every time a negative phrase enters the mind stop yourself, refute the belief with logic, and replace it with a strong and empowering thought. Positive self-talk is a technique that can be used to enhance motivation across a wide range of achievement domains. It makes use of ones powerful inner voice to reinforce self-esteem or important aspects of performance. With appropriate repetition, self-talk can positively alter an ones belief system.
Self Efficacy
Self-Efficacy is described as the perception of ones ability to perform a task successfully that provides a situation specific form of self confidence (Weinberg & Gould 2003). The relation between self-efficacy and performance is best summed up by Bandura (1997, p. 61).
“The evidence is relatively consistent in showing that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to level of motivation and performance. They predict not only the behavioural changes accompanying different environmental influences but also differences in behaviour between individuals receiving the same environmental influence, and even variation within the same individual in the tasks performed and those shunned or attempted but failed.”
According to Bandura self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment. Self-efficacy influences ones choices and the courses of action pursued. Individuals tend to select tasks and activities in which they feel competent and confident and avoid those in which they do not. The reasoning for this is unless people believe that ones actions can produce the desired consequences, participants have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. Much empirical evidence now supports Bandura’s contention that self-efficacy beliefs touch virtually every aspect of human life such as productive thought, self-debilitating, pessimistically or optimistically; how well one motivates and perseveres in the face of adversities; vulnerability to stress and depression, and the life choices made. Self-efficacy is also a critical determinant of self-regulation.
The higher ones sense of efficacy, the greater the effort, persistence, and resilience. Bandura adds that with a strong sense of personal competence difficult tasks will be views as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. Conversely, people with low self-efficacy may believe that things are tougher than they really are, a belief that fosters anxiety, stress, depression, and a narrow vision of how best to solve a problem. As a consequence, self-efficacy beliefs can powerfully influence the level of accomplishment that one ultimately achieves. This function of self-beliefs can also create the type of self-fulfilling prophecy in which one accomplishes what one believes one can accomplish. That is, the perseverance associated with high self-efficacy is likely to lead to increased performance, which, in turn, raises one’s sense of efficacy and spirit, whereas the giving-in associated with low self-efficacy helps ensure the very failure that further lowers confidence and morale. With an increased level of personal competence one will have a greater intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities, set more challenging goals and maintain strong commitment and sustain efforts in the face of failure and recover after failures or setbacks. Bandura suggest that self-efficacy beliefs also influence an individual’s thought patterns and emotional reactions. Bandura (1997) identified four phenomena that affect self-efficacy, mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological state. Mastery experience is defined as one’s personal experience with success or failure. Self-efficacy can be affected by observing the experiences of others. Participants can imitate their models’ skills, or copy the strategies that the models use. Learners can be motivated by using verbal feedback to convince or encourage them to accomplish their tasks. However, instructors should be conscious of the messages that they use. Bandura pointed out that negative messages have an even greater effect on lowering efficacy expectations than do positive messages to increase it. Anxiety, nervousness, rapid heart rate, sweating; these symptoms often occur when learners face challenges that require competence to overcome. Such physical or mental states reflect learner perceptions of their self-efficacy; these in turn affect their performance. There are various means of strengthening self-efficacy according to Bandura such as imagine ones self succeeding, use others as models and monitor your emotional reactions. Learn to re-label stress reactions as normal, expectable, and able to be changed. Raise self-efficacy beliefs is to improve physical and emotional well-being and reduce negative emotional states. Individuals have the capability to alter ones thinking and feeling enhanced self-efficacy beliefs can, in turn, powerfully influence the physiological states themselves. Ensure opportunities for people success by assigning tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. Thus by balancing the challenge people perform best when the level of difficulty is slightly above ones current ability level. Bandura warns that if the task is too easy it may promote boredom and communicate a message of low expectations or a sense that the participant is not capable of higher challenges.
However is a task is too difficult may be seen as unattainable, may undermine self-efficacy, and may create anxiety. Recommendations for the current model to strengthening self-efficacy include the incentive value of the performance. Incentive theories of motivation (e.g., Rotter, Phares and Chance, 1972; Overmier and Lawry, 1979) suggest that people will perform an act when its performance is likely to result in some outcome they desire, or that is important to them. For example, in anticipation of a situation in which a person is required to perform, that person may expend considerable effort in preparation because of the mediation provided by the desire to achieve success or avoid failure. That desire would be said to provide incentive motivation for the person to expend the effort. Participants display an increased motivation when a sense of autonomy in the process, and that motivation declines when people have no voice in the rehabilitation structure (Maddux, Norton, & Stoltenberg 1986). Therefore it is imperative the clients have personal meaning and value in the program and provide choices that increase motivation by creating a sense of autonomy in the rehabilitation process. The program will foster self-efficacy by providing challenging; yet attainable tasks clients have personal meaning, autonomy and value in the structure of the goal setting program. Further record and highlight mastery experiences, provide vicarious experiences and most importantly verbal persuasion and positive encouragement.
To summarise thus far this opportunity has provided me with valuable hands on experience and the chance to research and implement strategies that I have acquired over the past five years of part time external studies. At the “30 hour” stage it has been a positive, rewarding and challenging experience. The next step in the process is to have client(s) complete the pre program questionnaire statistically analyse the data and implement the model over a 90 hour period.
Reece
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of human behaviour (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopaedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G.P. (1985). The application of goal setting to sports. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, 205-222.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Maddux, J.E., Norton, L.W., & Stoltenberg, C.D. (1986). Self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and outcome value: Relative effects on behavioural intentions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 783-789.
Overmier, J.B. & Lawry, J.A. (1979). Conditioning and the mediation of behaviour. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation 13, 1-55. New York: Academic Press.
Rotter, J.B., Chance, J.E., & Phares, E.J. (1972). Applications of a social learning theory of personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D (2003) Foundations of Sport & Exercise Psychology
(3rd ed). Human Kinetics
