There is a considerable amount of preparation and revision of my past areas of studies involved before I start my placement and project. As the purpose of this project is to develop a model of achievement motivation applied particularly to clients at Headway Gold Coast with Acquired Brain Injury. The focus is on personal, social and environmental areas that affect motivation. The model will begin will the understanding the attitudes or beliefs that clients hold about themselves, capabilities and drive or the desire to attain an outcome based on personal value. Develop strategies and techniques to gain the outcomes that client’s desire. Each of these variables will be described in more detail, and evidence will be provided to support the contention that each exerts an important influence on motivation to achieve in a rehabilitation environment. Initially I have to develop an understanding about Acquired Brain Injury (ABI). An Acquired Brain Injury is defined by the Department of Human Services as:
An injury to the brain which results in deterioration of cognitive, physical, emotional or independent functions. It can occur as a result of trauma, hypoxia, infection, substance abuse, degenerative neurological disease or stroke. These impairments to cognitive abilities, sensory or physical functioning can be either temporary or permanent and cause partial or total disability or psycho social maladjustment.
(Source: Department of Human Services, Acquired Brain Injury Strategic Plan, 2001)
Acquired brain injury should not to be confused with intellectual disability. People with a brain injury may have difficulty controlling, coordinating and communicating their thoughts and actions but they usually retain their intellectual abilities. Further people with an acquired brain injury do not necessarily experience a decline in their overall level of general intellectual functioning; rather, they are more likely to experience specific cognitive changes that lead to difficulty in areas such as memory, concentration and communication. According to the Headway website (2008), Acquired brain injury is an injury to the brain that is not hereditary, present at birth, or degenerative. The causes include traumatic brain injury; anoxic/hypoxic injury (e.g. heart attack, carbon monoxide poisoning), intracranial surgery, seizure disorders and toxic exposure (e.g. substance abuse, ingestion or inhalation of volatile agents). Further a traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an acquired brain injury that is caused by an external physical force that may produce a diminished or altered state of consciousness. The most common causes of TBI are vehicle crashes, falls, sports injuries, and violence. Other acquired brain injuries can be caused by medical events such as anoxia (loss of oxygen to the brain), aneurysms, and infections to the brain, tumours, or stroke.
My next step is to revise the material from both of the sport psychology subjects to develop a comprehensive understanding of all types of motivation that I could possibly encounter in my placement time at the Headway clinic. The definition of motivation for use in the project is “Instruction and challenges given that assists in reaching goals, dreams and (more importantly) potential.” Motivation is an internal energy force that determines all aspects of ones behaviour; it also impacts on how one thinks, feel and interact with others. However, given its inherently abstract nature, it is a force that is often difficult to exploit fully. Weinberg & Gould (2003) define motivation as the direction and intensity of ones effort. According to Reed and Cox (2007) motivation can be categorised as being either extrinsic or intrinsic in nature, with a-motivation being the absence of motivation. Frederick-Recascino and Schuster-Smith (2003) found that in sport and exercise activities, intrinsic and extrinsic motives have been shown to relate differentially to adherence variables and perceptions toward exercise. Frederick and Ryan (1993) found that intrinsic motivation correlated positively with greater number of hours and days per week of participation in an exercise or sport activity, as well as with higher levels of perceived satisfaction and competence for the activity. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation was positively related to anxiety, while negatively relating to self-esteem. People who are motivated are happier, more creative, have more energy, are flexible, are more optimistic, are more apt to stay healthy, these are just a few of the benefits of staying positive.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from within, is fully self-determined and characterised by interest in, and enjoyment derived from, sports participation. There are three types of intrinsic motivation, namely intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to accomplish and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation.
Intrinsic motivation is considered to be the healthiest type of motivation and reflects a participant’s motivation to perform an activity simply for the reward inherent in ones participation. According to Deci (1975) intrinsic motivation is engaging in an activity purely for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from doing the activity and one who is intrinsically motivated performs activities voluntarily, in the absence of material rewards or external constraints. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are displayed when one engages in to provide oneself with a sense of competence and self-determination. Thus, intrinsic motivation is a natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery, spontaneous interest, exploration and is most positive potential of human nature Deci and Ryan (2000). Benefits of intrinsic motivation are substantiated by Deci & Ryan who emphasise several studies that the more autonomous and intrinsic one’s motivation is enhances ones persistence, performance, well-being and readiness to initiate exercise and enjoyment (Pelletier et al., 1995 as cited in Deci & Ryan, 2000). Mageau and Valerian (2003) highlight research that reveals athletes who are intrinsically motivated invest more effort, report higher levels of concentration, are more persistent, involved and perform better. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is defined as results from achievement behaviour performed for some tangible reward or to avoid negative consequences rather than for the inherent pleasure it provides (Deci, 1975; Vallerand & Fortier, 1998). Deci & Ryan (1985) contend that extrinsically motivated individuals engage in given activity as a means toward an end, such as outperforming others, subsequently perceiving the locus of causality of their behaviour to be linked to external causation. According to Frederick-Recascino and Schuster-Smith (2003) when activities are not freely chosen or challenging, they are said to be extrinsically motivated. Much of human behaviour begins with an extrinsic focus and moves toward greater self-regulation. Extrinsically motivated behaviours can move through three levels of internalisation, occurring as an individual becomes increasingly self-determined (Chandler & Connell, 1987; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989 as cited in Frederick-Recascino and Schuster-Smith). The first level of regulation is external regulation. At the external level behaviour is directly and externally controlled or coerced. At the second level, introjected regulation, the formerly external control has been internalised to the extent that the individual’s desire to gain social approval and avoid disapproval motivates behaviour. The next level, identified regulation is characterised by a higher level of internalisation and self-determination. In identified regulation, the individual is motivated through interests, abilities, and the desire to achieve self-initiated goals.
One of the most popular and widely tested approaches to motivation in sport and other achievement domains is self-determination theory. According to Ryan & Deci (2000) Self Determining Theory the key aspect in using extrinsic rewards effectively is that they reinforce an athlete’s sense of competence and self-worth.
Thus, a reward should be informational in nature rather than controlling. If a reward comes to be controlling, it can significantly undermine intrinsic motivation. For a reward to be informational, it is advisable that it has relatively little monetary worth (i.e. it is a token reward). It is recommended that the reward should be presented to a client in front of all potential recipients with some emphasis placed on the prestige associated with it. Other popular ways of using token rewards include etching participant’s names on annual honours boards for their contributions, or awarding a special item of clothing.
A-Motivation
A-motivation represents a lack of intention to engage in behaviour. It is accompanied by feelings of incompetence, helplessness and a lack of connection between one’s behaviour and the expected outcome therefore one who is a-motivated is highly prone to dropping out. Weinberg, & Gould (2003) defines a-motivation
Individuals as neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and thus experience a lack of control.
For the motivation program to successful it is imperative that a clear understanding of why motivation differs between individuals. For this reason the present model will be based on the theory of achievement motivation. Achievement motivation is defined by (Murray as cited in Weinberg & Gould 2003 p. 59) as “ones efforts to master a task, achieve excellence overcome obstacles, perform better than others and take pride in exercising talent”. Achievement-motivated people have certain characteristics in common, including; the capacity to set high personal but obtainable goals, strive for task success, persist in the face of failure (Gill 2000) the concern for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success and the desire for relevant feedback rather than for attitudinal feedback. According to Weinberg & Gould achievement motivation is based on the psychological journey the interaction between ones behaviours thoughts and feelings to reach the final outcome. To implement achievement motivation into professional practice Weinberg & Gould recommend that essential assessment should focus on the participant’s stage of achievement motivation, ones goal orientations, attributions client make about their performances and which conditions they tend to avoid and / or approach. Further strategies to enhance achievement motivation highlighted by Weinberg & Gould include, emphasising task goals and downplay outcome goals, monitor and provide attribution feedback, encouraging clients to make appropriate attributions and correct inappropriate or maladaptive self assessments and enhance feelings of perceived competence and personal control.
There are so many other areas and theories that I have to be conscious of before I start my placement. The current study will be based on the Interactional View of motivation and achievement motivation provides recommendations that possible increase motivation in clients at Headway Gold Coast with Acquired Brain Injury. The best way to understand Interactional View of motivation according to Weinberg & Gould (2003) is to consider both the interaction between the person and the situation. This view of motivation is the most widely endorsed by sport and exercise psychologists (Weinberg & Gould 2003). The participant by situation interactional view implies that motivation results are a combination and interaction of both participant factors (personality, needs, goals and interests) and situations factors (environment and social group). Weinberg & Gould highlight four guidelines for building motivation, situation and traits motivate people, people have multiple motives for involvement, change the environment to enhance motivation and use behaviour modification to change undesirable participant motives.
I have to be aware the both situations and traits motivate and influence people and the choices that they make. Weinberg & Gould suggest that when one is attempting to develop motivation both situational and personal factors must be considered. Thus low motivation is a result of the interaction of these two factors. The key to successful motivation strategies is to focus on the personal attributes and the current situation of the participants. The current models initial task is to research client’s history and observe and be acquainted with clients to gain a better understanding of current personal situations, attributes and attitudes. In preparation for the placement I have had to research why people have multiple motives for involvement or lack off involvement. According to Weinberg & Gould people have various reasons for participating or resisting involvement. To increase motivation it is necessary to identify and understand personal motives for non compliance or lack of motivation. Suggestions include: Understand why and why not people participate in physical activity, is there more than one reason or competing motives. As people have a variety of motives for participating or resisting involvement Weinberg & Gould suggest that researches observe the clients to asses what they enjoy and dislike about the activity, talk to those who know the person about their motives for participation and periodically ask the client to write out or inform staff for their reasons.
An area that I needed to address from the suggestions from the portfolio is a timeline for the project this has been addressed and now a time guides line is in place. The project will be completed by the required date of November 2008.
Project Time Line
Up to 30 Hours
Research client history
Observe and meet clients to gain a better understanding of current personal situations and attitudes
Structure program model
Develop a measurement device in consultation with supervisor.
30 to 60 Hours
Administer questionnaire and analyse results
Introduce strategies or techniques about improving achievement motivation
Monitor clients and discuss any issues with rehabilitation team.
60 to 90 Hours
Monitor clients and discuss any issues with rehabilitation team.
90 to 120 Hours
Monitor clients and discuss any issues with rehabilitation team
Conduct an assessment at the end of the period.
Statistically analyse the results for significance.
Provide a report summarising the findings and making recommendations for a continuation and/or expansion of the intervention if appropriate.
Thus far I know that I have completed a considerable amount of quality research I know and understand the theories but to be honest that is my greatest concern that’s all I have acquired at the moment theory no practical. However that is the challenge and the excitement about this particular course the opportunity to have that real world experience tackle and over come obstacles and grow from the course.
Reece
References
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2008). Retrieved April 25, 2008, from http://www.aihw.gov.au/.
Deci, E.L., (1975) Intrinsic Motivation. , New York: Plenum Press.
Headway Gold Coast (2008). Retrieved April 25, 2008, from
http://www.headwaygoldcoast.org/resources.php.
Gill, D. (2000). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. Champaign. IL: Human Kinetics.
Frederick, C.M., & Ryan, R.M. (1993). Differences in motivation for sport and exercise and their relations with participation and mental health. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 16, 124-126.
Frederick-Recascino, C. M., and Schuster-Smith. , H. (2003) “Competition and intrinsic motivation in physical activity: a comparison of two groups.” Journal of Sport Behaviour. 26.3 240 (15). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Central Queensland University Library. 9 Apr. 2008
Mageau, G. A., and Valerian, R. J. (2003). The coach-athlete relationship: a motivational model. Journal of sports sciences. Taylor & Francis 21 (11).
Reed, C. E., and Cox, R. H. (2007) Motives and regulatory style underlying senior athletes’ participation in sport. Journal of Sport Behaviour. 30.3: 307(24). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Central Queensland University Library. 9 Apr. 2008
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol, 55(1), 68–78.
Vallerand, R.J., & Fortier, M.S. (1998). Measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport and physical activity: A review and critique. In J.L. Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement. (pp. 81-101) Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D (2003) Foundations of Sport & Exercise Psychology
(3rd Ed). Human Kinetics
